Motivation is an important concept in the process of human development and learning that starts in childhood and continues throughout our lives.
Among the numerous theories of motivation, two of the most significant are Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by Deci and Ryan (1985).
Maslow’s model is well known and a helpful way of looking at motivation as a step-by-step process. SDT provides a more detailed and less restrictive perspective, particularly regarding the type of needs people have and how they affect motivation, and recognises that motivation can be intrinsically or extrinsically driven.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is one of the most famous and popular needs-based models. The model is a self-fulfilment theory of motivation which states that people are motivated to first satisfy biological needs before they can move on to psychological needs. Maslow believed that people must first meet their basic needs before they can move on to other needs. This model of motivation is useful to identify and meet participants’ needs and ensure that we develop our nature based activities with participants’ needs in mind.
However, there are limitations to this theory, which are not always considered when we think about motivating participants in sessions.
- Lack of Empirical Support: Recent studies have revealed that the theory of human needs is not as linear as suggested by Maslow (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). Meaning that people can try to achieve self-actualization even when they have not met their basic needs.
- Cultural Variability: Maslow’s model poses a sequence of needs that are supposed to be universal, but cultural influences play a role in determining what motivates people (Tay & Diener, 2011).
- Limited Motivation: The hierarchy is a good attempt at explaining deficiency motivation (the attempt to meet needs that are not fully met), but it does not capture growth motivation well or recognise that motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Maslow does not explain how you can move participants along from extrinsic motivation towards intrinsically led motivation.
Self-Determination Theory: A More Dynamic and Inclusive Approach
Self-Determination Theory (SDT):
Self-determination theory identifies the significance of three fundamental psychological needs that underpin intrinsic motivation. These include autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
SDT acknowledges that these needs function simultaneously and interact dynamically, in contrast to Maslow’s strict hierarchy. This model is effective in nature-based practice, where the leaders employ facilitation skills to enable participant autonomy in their learning, skill development through goal-setting, scaffolding support for participants, and skill mastery through firsthand experience. Additionally, extrinsic motivation is developed through a sense of belonging and connection.
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation. Maslow’s theory does not strictly separate internally and externally driven phenomena. Self-determination theory makes an important distinction: it states that autonomy and competence fuel intrinsic motivation, which leads to greater involvement in doing things for the long-term well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Therefore, it really matters in education and at work because it can develop better performance and well-being through participants developing intrinsic motivation.
Empirical Validity and Flexibility
SDT has been empirically validated in a variety of areas, such as health, education, and organisational behaviour (Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan, 2017). In contrast to Maslow’s model, which presupposes a rigid ordering of needs, SDT considers how motivation affects the individual as part of their life experiences and context.
Application Across Cultures and Contexts
Although Maslow’s model has suffered criticism on cultural grounds, SDT has been applied to many cultural settings too. It was found that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are universally accepted as psychological needs even though they may express themselves differently because of the cultural values held (Chirkov, Ryan, & Sheldon, 2011).
Relevance to Nature-Based Learning.
The nature-based learning environments, such as those in forest schools and outdoor education, fit into the principles of self-determination theory. In these contexts, outdoor facilitators enable students to incorporate their learning with the environment to develop autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
For example
Autonomy: Outdoor learning provides opportunities for student-directed exploration and self-directed problem-solving and allows children to decide how they interact with nature.
Competence: Nature-based activities such as nature art and building fires contribute towards an increased feeling of mastery and self-confidence.
Relatedness: Participation in shared activities in nature develops people and feelings of belonging with peers.
There is evidence to suggest that learning in the outdoors site enhances motivation, engagement, and welfare through these psychological needs (Ryan, Weinstein, Bernstein, Brown, Mistretta, & Gagné, 2010).
Outdoor environments are not static in time but rather dynamic and adaptable for individualised experiences that address different learning styles and intrinsic interests.
Though Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs stands as a foundational theory with considerable importance in psychology, Self-Determination Theory gives a better grounded, more flexible, and empirically backed understanding of motivation. It emphasises autonomy, competence, and relatedness as the universal psychological needs in humans. Today, when intrinsic motivation and self-growth are important, SDT provides a clearer model by which to understand motivation as a true driver of human behaviour.
References
Chirkov, V., Ryan, R. M., & Sheldon, K. M. (2011). Human autonomy in cross-cultural context: Perspectives on the psychology of agency, freedom, and well-being. Springer Science & Business Media.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer Science & Business Media.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). “The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior.” Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). “Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a science.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 19-43.
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). “Self-determination theory and work motivation.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331-362.
Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). “Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice.” Theory and Research in Education, 7(2), 133-144.
Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2011). “Needs and subjective well-being around the world.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 354.
Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). “Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory.” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15(2), 212-240.
